We have wondered about our brain and how it works, what it does, and how it evolved for thousands of years. The timeline shown below does not include every important discovery over the last 4500 years, instead it highlights some of the major discoveries we have made. Furthermore, it only covers the most basic information about these important men, and women, and the discoveries that changed the way we think about the human brain. Assignment 1 in the Assignments and Worksheet page is designed to encourage students to take a more in-depth look at one of these fascinating advancements!
Timeline of Discoveries
2500 BC - Ancient Egypt
A papyrus, that has become known as the "Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus" was discovered that had been recorded by an unknown physician. It detailed 26 cases of brain injury and their suggested treatments. This Papyrus contains the first known written account of the anatomy of the brain.
2000 BC - Trepanation
Archaeological evidence dating to this time period show the practice of trepanation was being practiced by a wide range of peoples. This was an early, and obviously very primitive form of brain surgery. It involved drilling a hole through the skull and was used for spiritual and magical purposes as well as the treatment of headaches and epilepsy.
450 BC - 300 BC - Ancient Greeks
Alcmaeon, an early greek physician positited that the brain was the central organ of sensation and thought, despite the fact that it was widely believed to have been the heart. This work was continued by Hippocrates, who asserted that ideas, and feelings also came from the brain and not the heart. He suggested that we are made up of four humours that effect our personality and behaviours (sanguine (optimistic leader-like), choleric (bad-tempered or irritable), melancholic (analytical and quiet), and phlegmatic). Furthermore, he recorded the first detailed account of epilepsy and its symptoms, and determined that it was a disorder of the brain. Two other important ancient Greek biologists were Herophilus and Erasistratus who dissected and compared human bodies giving detailed accounts of the brain and "discovered" the nervous system, distinguishing between motor and sensory nerves.
130 AD - 201 AD - Galen
Galen a Roman physician developed a theory of personality based upon Hippocrates four humours, he also linked physical symptoms to emotions, such as an increased heart rate when excited. He is recognized for being one of the first to attempt psychotherapy.
1514 AD - 1564 AD - Andreas Vesalius
He did a great deal of work on understanding the human nervous system. He determined and defined nerves as transmitting sensation and motion. He also determined that the brain and nervous system are the centre of the mind and emotions and that nerves originate in the brain and not the heart as previously believed. Finally, his studying of the optic nerve led to his conclusion that nerves were not the hollow tubes many believed them to be.
1596 AD -1650 AD - Rene Descarte
Descarte is credited with founding was became known as reflex theory, this theory examines how external stimuli can cause automatic and differentiated reactions (ex. hitting a certain spot on your knee causes you to kick out your leg). He also suggested the idea of mind/body dualism or Cartesian dualism. This theory attempts to explain how mental states are related to the physical state given that the human body is a physical entity while the mind is non-physical.
1621 AD - 1675 AD - Thomas Willis
Willis was a founding member of the Royal Society in London and he was a pioneer in research into the anatomy of the brain, nervous system, and muscles. In 1664 he wrote the Cerebri Anatome a detailed anatomy of the brain and nerves and first used the term neurology. He was the first to number the cranial nerves, and discovered the "Circle of Willis" a circle of arteries at the base of the brain that supply blood to the brain.
1737 AD - 1778 AD - Luigi Galvani
Galvani discovered "animal electricity" which in turn led to the study of bio-electromagnetics and bio-electricity. This field studies the electrical patterns and signals of the nervous system. He discovered this after finding that electricity caused a dead frogs muscles to spasm.
1758 AD -1828 AD - Franz Joesph Gall
Gall was the founder of a scientific theory that became known as phrenology, this is now something that has been debunked as pseudo science, however, it did help contribute to the development of psychology as a science. Phrenology was based upon the study of the skull (the six and shape) it was believed that bumps, protrusions, or dips in the skull determined certain personality traits. This was because they believed that areas of the brain had localized, specific functions or modules. A bump or dump signified something was different about that section of the brain (larger or smaller, or possibly damaged) and this led to personality traits. He also contributed to the improvement of dissection method which helped future physicians, and scientist make their discoveries about the brain.
1774 AD - 1842 AD - Charles Bell
Bell did detailed work on the nervous system. In 1811 he published "An Idea of a New Anatomy of the Brain" in which he distinguished between sensory and motor nerves, his work led to the development of clinical neurology. His work with patients suffering from a disease that would become known as Bell's Palsy, a unilateral paralysis of the facial muscles, also linked clinical practice to neuroanatomy.
1823 AD- 1860 AD - Phineas Gage
While not a scientist Gage contributed to our understanding of psychology, and how the brain works, due to an unfortunate accident. An iron rod went through his skull destroying part of his frontal lobe. The damage caused behavioural and personality changes in Gage, and these were attributed to the injury to that specific part of his brain. The study of Gage and his injury led to the determination as to the responsibility of parts of the brain, and to the concept of a lobotomy for effecting changes in behaviour.
1824 AD - 1880 AD - Paul Broca
Broca was a French physician who was responsible for providing the first anatomical proof of the localization of brain function. The area of the brain now know as Broca's Area is a region in the frontal lobe that is involved with articulated language. He discovered this connection due to his work with patients suffering from Aphasia (a disease that causes difficulty in expressing oneself when speaking, trouble understanding speech, and difficulty with reading and writing). He discovered that their brains contained legions or damage in one particular section of the brain, and correctly linked this to their difficulty with language.
1848 AD - 1905 AD - Carl Wernicke
Continuing the work of Paul Broca, Wernicke noticed that not all patients with Aphasia had damage to the Broca's Area of their brain. He found damage in another part of the brain, one that is now called Wernicke's Area, which also contributed to deficits in language comprehension. When there is damage to Wernicke's Area patients can express oneself without difficulty, but cannot comprehend what they hear or read.
1852 AD - 1934 AD - Santiago Ramon y Cajal
He is considered by many as the father of modern neuroscience, he pioneered new studies on the microscopic structures of the brain. He proved that the relationship between nerve cells was not continuous but instead contiguous. This discovery helped provide the evidence for Neuron Theory, which states that the nervous system is made up of discrete individual cells.
1856 AD - 1939 AD - Sigmund Freud
An Austrian neurologist who developed the practice of psychoanalysis which was a method used to treat psychopathy in patients. He first used hypnosis to encourage patients to talk freely about memories that came to mind, he called this free association. This idea of open dialogue led to his development of psychoanalysis, and the many other theories he developed during his career.
1857 AD - 1952 Charles Scott Sherrington
Sherrington received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1932 along with Edgar Adrian. They received it for their work studying neurons and the methods in which they operate. Sherrington proved that reflexes use integrated activation and that there is reciprocal innervation of muscles which describes skeletal muscles as existing in antagonistic pairs, with contraction of one muscle producing forces opposite to those generated by contraction of the other.
1889 AD- 1977 AD - Edgar Adrian
Sherrington's co recipient also received the Nobel Prize for his work on neurons. He proved the all or none law of nerves. This law shows that the strength by which a nerve responds to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus. In other words as long as the stimulus is enough to exceed the threshold potential then the nerve will give a full response. If it does not exceed the threshold potential then it will give no response. In other words if the stimulus is weak the nerve does not give a week response it is either a full response or no response at all.
1873 AD - 1941 AD Hans Berger
Berger was responsible for the invention of Electroencephalography or EEG's in 1924. He recorded brain waves, the electrical activity of the brain, and compared normal brain waves to those that occur in abnormal brains. He described the different waves such as alpha waves and beta waves and the rhythms at which they functioned.
1873 AD - 1961 AD Otto Loewi and 1875 AD - 1968 AD Henry Dale
These two scientist were responsible for the discovery of Acetylcholine which acts as a chemical connection between nerves or a neurotransmitter. This helped to explain the method by which nerves communicate with each other, by proving the chemical transmission of nerve impulses.
1909 AD - 2012 AD - Rita Levi-Montalcini
She was a neurobiologist who won the Nobel Prize for her joint discovery of the Nerve Growth Factor. The NGF was a neuropeptide involved in the growth and regulation of certain neurons, for example it plays a role in the regulation of the immune system.
1942 AD - Present - Stanley B. Prusiner
He was responsible for discovering a new infectious agent known as prions. Prions normally exist as harmless cellular proteins, but they can convert and become infectious agents in diseases that cause dementia. This has led to new research into the causes of diseases such as Alzheimer's.
1947 AD - Present - Howard Eichenbaum
He has performed, and continues to perform, extensive research into the role of the hippocampus in memory function. He has developed new theories into how the hippocampus forms relational memories. This understanding is continuing to develop new insights as to how memory storage works.
A papyrus, that has become known as the "Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus" was discovered that had been recorded by an unknown physician. It detailed 26 cases of brain injury and their suggested treatments. This Papyrus contains the first known written account of the anatomy of the brain.
2000 BC - Trepanation
Archaeological evidence dating to this time period show the practice of trepanation was being practiced by a wide range of peoples. This was an early, and obviously very primitive form of brain surgery. It involved drilling a hole through the skull and was used for spiritual and magical purposes as well as the treatment of headaches and epilepsy.
450 BC - 300 BC - Ancient Greeks
Alcmaeon, an early greek physician positited that the brain was the central organ of sensation and thought, despite the fact that it was widely believed to have been the heart. This work was continued by Hippocrates, who asserted that ideas, and feelings also came from the brain and not the heart. He suggested that we are made up of four humours that effect our personality and behaviours (sanguine (optimistic leader-like), choleric (bad-tempered or irritable), melancholic (analytical and quiet), and phlegmatic). Furthermore, he recorded the first detailed account of epilepsy and its symptoms, and determined that it was a disorder of the brain. Two other important ancient Greek biologists were Herophilus and Erasistratus who dissected and compared human bodies giving detailed accounts of the brain and "discovered" the nervous system, distinguishing between motor and sensory nerves.
130 AD - 201 AD - Galen
Galen a Roman physician developed a theory of personality based upon Hippocrates four humours, he also linked physical symptoms to emotions, such as an increased heart rate when excited. He is recognized for being one of the first to attempt psychotherapy.
1514 AD - 1564 AD - Andreas Vesalius
He did a great deal of work on understanding the human nervous system. He determined and defined nerves as transmitting sensation and motion. He also determined that the brain and nervous system are the centre of the mind and emotions and that nerves originate in the brain and not the heart as previously believed. Finally, his studying of the optic nerve led to his conclusion that nerves were not the hollow tubes many believed them to be.
1596 AD -1650 AD - Rene Descarte
Descarte is credited with founding was became known as reflex theory, this theory examines how external stimuli can cause automatic and differentiated reactions (ex. hitting a certain spot on your knee causes you to kick out your leg). He also suggested the idea of mind/body dualism or Cartesian dualism. This theory attempts to explain how mental states are related to the physical state given that the human body is a physical entity while the mind is non-physical.
1621 AD - 1675 AD - Thomas Willis
Willis was a founding member of the Royal Society in London and he was a pioneer in research into the anatomy of the brain, nervous system, and muscles. In 1664 he wrote the Cerebri Anatome a detailed anatomy of the brain and nerves and first used the term neurology. He was the first to number the cranial nerves, and discovered the "Circle of Willis" a circle of arteries at the base of the brain that supply blood to the brain.
1737 AD - 1778 AD - Luigi Galvani
Galvani discovered "animal electricity" which in turn led to the study of bio-electromagnetics and bio-electricity. This field studies the electrical patterns and signals of the nervous system. He discovered this after finding that electricity caused a dead frogs muscles to spasm.
1758 AD -1828 AD - Franz Joesph Gall
Gall was the founder of a scientific theory that became known as phrenology, this is now something that has been debunked as pseudo science, however, it did help contribute to the development of psychology as a science. Phrenology was based upon the study of the skull (the six and shape) it was believed that bumps, protrusions, or dips in the skull determined certain personality traits. This was because they believed that areas of the brain had localized, specific functions or modules. A bump or dump signified something was different about that section of the brain (larger or smaller, or possibly damaged) and this led to personality traits. He also contributed to the improvement of dissection method which helped future physicians, and scientist make their discoveries about the brain.
1774 AD - 1842 AD - Charles Bell
Bell did detailed work on the nervous system. In 1811 he published "An Idea of a New Anatomy of the Brain" in which he distinguished between sensory and motor nerves, his work led to the development of clinical neurology. His work with patients suffering from a disease that would become known as Bell's Palsy, a unilateral paralysis of the facial muscles, also linked clinical practice to neuroanatomy.
1823 AD- 1860 AD - Phineas Gage
While not a scientist Gage contributed to our understanding of psychology, and how the brain works, due to an unfortunate accident. An iron rod went through his skull destroying part of his frontal lobe. The damage caused behavioural and personality changes in Gage, and these were attributed to the injury to that specific part of his brain. The study of Gage and his injury led to the determination as to the responsibility of parts of the brain, and to the concept of a lobotomy for effecting changes in behaviour.
1824 AD - 1880 AD - Paul Broca
Broca was a French physician who was responsible for providing the first anatomical proof of the localization of brain function. The area of the brain now know as Broca's Area is a region in the frontal lobe that is involved with articulated language. He discovered this connection due to his work with patients suffering from Aphasia (a disease that causes difficulty in expressing oneself when speaking, trouble understanding speech, and difficulty with reading and writing). He discovered that their brains contained legions or damage in one particular section of the brain, and correctly linked this to their difficulty with language.
1848 AD - 1905 AD - Carl Wernicke
Continuing the work of Paul Broca, Wernicke noticed that not all patients with Aphasia had damage to the Broca's Area of their brain. He found damage in another part of the brain, one that is now called Wernicke's Area, which also contributed to deficits in language comprehension. When there is damage to Wernicke's Area patients can express oneself without difficulty, but cannot comprehend what they hear or read.
1852 AD - 1934 AD - Santiago Ramon y Cajal
He is considered by many as the father of modern neuroscience, he pioneered new studies on the microscopic structures of the brain. He proved that the relationship between nerve cells was not continuous but instead contiguous. This discovery helped provide the evidence for Neuron Theory, which states that the nervous system is made up of discrete individual cells.
1856 AD - 1939 AD - Sigmund Freud
An Austrian neurologist who developed the practice of psychoanalysis which was a method used to treat psychopathy in patients. He first used hypnosis to encourage patients to talk freely about memories that came to mind, he called this free association. This idea of open dialogue led to his development of psychoanalysis, and the many other theories he developed during his career.
1857 AD - 1952 Charles Scott Sherrington
Sherrington received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1932 along with Edgar Adrian. They received it for their work studying neurons and the methods in which they operate. Sherrington proved that reflexes use integrated activation and that there is reciprocal innervation of muscles which describes skeletal muscles as existing in antagonistic pairs, with contraction of one muscle producing forces opposite to those generated by contraction of the other.
1889 AD- 1977 AD - Edgar Adrian
Sherrington's co recipient also received the Nobel Prize for his work on neurons. He proved the all or none law of nerves. This law shows that the strength by which a nerve responds to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus. In other words as long as the stimulus is enough to exceed the threshold potential then the nerve will give a full response. If it does not exceed the threshold potential then it will give no response. In other words if the stimulus is weak the nerve does not give a week response it is either a full response or no response at all.
1873 AD - 1941 AD Hans Berger
Berger was responsible for the invention of Electroencephalography or EEG's in 1924. He recorded brain waves, the electrical activity of the brain, and compared normal brain waves to those that occur in abnormal brains. He described the different waves such as alpha waves and beta waves and the rhythms at which they functioned.
1873 AD - 1961 AD Otto Loewi and 1875 AD - 1968 AD Henry Dale
These two scientist were responsible for the discovery of Acetylcholine which acts as a chemical connection between nerves or a neurotransmitter. This helped to explain the method by which nerves communicate with each other, by proving the chemical transmission of nerve impulses.
1909 AD - 2012 AD - Rita Levi-Montalcini
She was a neurobiologist who won the Nobel Prize for her joint discovery of the Nerve Growth Factor. The NGF was a neuropeptide involved in the growth and regulation of certain neurons, for example it plays a role in the regulation of the immune system.
1942 AD - Present - Stanley B. Prusiner
He was responsible for discovering a new infectious agent known as prions. Prions normally exist as harmless cellular proteins, but they can convert and become infectious agents in diseases that cause dementia. This has led to new research into the causes of diseases such as Alzheimer's.
1947 AD - Present - Howard Eichenbaum
He has performed, and continues to perform, extensive research into the role of the hippocampus in memory function. He has developed new theories into how the hippocampus forms relational memories. This understanding is continuing to develop new insights as to how memory storage works.